The U.S. Supreme Court’s 2002 decision in Atkins v. Virginia categorically bars states from executing any person who has Intellectual Disability. (Daryl Atkins is pictured.) However, as reported in recent stories in Pacific Standard Magazine and the newspaper, The Atlanta Black Star, some states have attempted to circumvent the Atkins ruling by using social stereotypes and race as grounds to argue that defendants of color are not intellectually disabled.
Prosecutors in at least eight states have presented opinions from expert witnesses that “ethnic adjustments” should be applied to IQ tests and tests of adaptive functioning that would deny an intellectual disability diagnosis to Black or Latino defendants who, if they were White, would be considered intellectually disabled and ineligible for the death penalty. “Ethnic adjustments” typically take one of two forms. One adjustment purports to compensate for perceived racial bias in IQ testing by boosting the defendant’s IQ scores. A second form of adjustment is determining, based upon the expert witness’s subjective views about a defendant’s social conditions and culture, that impairments in day-to-day functioning that would be considered adaptive deficits for White defendants are not as rare for a person with the defendant’s racial, ethnic, and socio-economic background, and so are not evidence of intellectual disability.
Robert M. Sanger, a trial lawyer and professor of law and forensic science at Santa Barbara College of Law in California who wrote the 2015 law review article IQ, Intelligence Tests, ‘Ethnic Adjustments’ and Atkins called the use of these adjustments “outrageous.” “What these so-called experts do,” Sanger says, “is say that, because people of color are not as likely to score as well on IQ tests, you should, therefore, increase their IQ scores from 5 to 15 points to make up for some unknown or undescribed problem in the test.”
Sanger has documented the use of ethnic adjustments by prosecutors in Florida, Texas, Alabama, Tennessee, Missouri, California, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. “The idea of racially classifying a person and then using ‘ethnic adjustments’ to increase his or her IQ score, thereby qualifying that person for execution, is logically, clinically, and constitutionally unsound,” Sanger wrote. IQ scores, he says, are affected by a variety of environmental factors “such as childhood abuse, poverty, stress, and trauma[, that] can cause decreases in actual IQ scores.” Because people who experience these environmental factors “disproportionately populate death row, ethnic adjustments make it more likely that individuals who are actually intellectually disabled will be put to death.”
Moreover, the courts have repeatedly rejected the adjusting of test scores on the basis of race in cases that would benefit racial minorities, Sanger said, most prominently in cases in which African-American applicants for police or firefighting jobs had alleged that cities were using racially discriminatory tests. Sanger says “it’s sort of outrageous that you can adjust scores upward so you can be killed, but not so you can get a job.”
In 2011, the Texas State Board of Examiners of Psychologists reprimanded psychologist Dr. George Denkowski for his misuse of ethnic adjustments in death-penalty cases. As part of an agreement dismissing disciplinary charges against him, Denkowski—who testified against sixteen Texas death-row prisoners, several of whom have been executed—was fined $5,500 and agreed that he would never again conduct intellectual disability evaluations in criminal cases. On January 4, 2018, Philadelphia prosecutors, who had used Denkowski’s ethnic adjustments as part their argument that Pennsylvania death-row prisoner Jose DeJesus was not intellectually disabled, agreed that DeJesus should be resentenced to life.
Ethnic adjustments are only some of the non-scientific barriers states have erected to avoid compliance with Atkins. In 2014, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Hall v. Florida that Florida had unconstitutionally employed an IQ cut-off score to reject claims of intellectual disability. In 2017, in Moore v. Texas, the court rejected the state’s use of a set of unscientific lay stereotypes to claim that a defendant did not have the adaptive deficits necessary to be considered intellectually disabled. The Court called Texas’s approach an “outlier” that, “[b]y design and in operation, … create[s] an unacceptable risk that persons with intellectual disability will be executed.” Moore reiterated that a court’s determination of intellectual disability in a death-penalty case must be “informed by the medical community’s diagnostic framework.”
D. Amari Jackson, How Prosecutors are Making Intellectually-Disabled African-Americans on Death Row Smart Enough to Kill, Atlanta Black Star, February 8, 2018; David M. Perry, HOW IQ TESTS ARE PERVERTED TO JUSTIFY THE DEATH PENALTY, Pacific Standard, January 25, 2018; Brandi Grissom, Psychologist Reprimanded in Death Penalty Cases, The Texas Tribune, April 15, 2011.
